Anti-rookboodschappen zijn dodelijk: De rol van dreiging en weerstand in effecten van overtuigende anti-rookboodschappen

Tom Vanderschoot
Persbericht

Roken is dodelijk: een pervers kantje aan de huidige anti-rookboodschappen?

We zijn ze ondertussen allemaal gewoon: de niet mis te verstane boodschappen die sinds jaar en dag op de sigarettenpakjes prijken. Bijna iedereen is het erover eens dat dit een goede zaak is. Ze kunnen rokers alleen maar meer bewust maken van de schadelijke effecten en vervolgens aanzetten tot stoppen, toch?

Recent onderzoek plaatst echter enkele kanttekeningen bij deze opvatting. Zijn deze anti-rookboodschappen wel zo zaligmakend als iedereen denkt? Tom Vanderschoot deed in zijn masterproef onderzoek naar de effecten van dreiging en weerstand in anti- rookboodschappen. We zetten zijn bevindingen even op een rij. Wat wordt nu precies bedoeld met dreiging? Dreiging wordt gezien als een subjectief ervaren mate waarin deelnemers een boodschap scoren op een aantal indicatoren, zoals “de boodschap maakte me angstig over mijn rookgedrag” en “de boodschap bedreigde mijn vrijheid om te kiezen”. Men kon in de verschillende indicatoren van dreiging een onderscheid maken tussen “bedreiging van fysieke gezondheid” (voorbeeld één) en “bedreiging van eigenheid” (voorbeeld twee).

Allereerst lijkt dreiging wel degelijk zijn werk te doen. Wanneer deelnemers een boodschap hoog scoorden op indicatoren van bedreiging van fysieke gezondheid, dan bleken deze deelnemers ook minder voorkeur voor roken te vertonen. Hoewel deze gegevens correlationeel van aard waren, geeft dit toch de interessante suggestie dat het bedreigen van fysieke gezondheid er wel degelijk voor kan zorgen dat rokers negatiever gaan staan ten opzichte van roken.

Er bleek echter ook een ander effect waar te nemen. Wanneer participanten hoog scoorden op indicatoren van bedreiging van eigenheid, leidde dit tot een toename in “contragedachten”. Deelnemers gingen dus meer argumenten bedenken om de gepresenteerde anti-rookboodschap te ontkrachten. Meer nog, deze toename in contragedachten leidde op haar beurt tot meer voorkeur voor roken. Omdat deelnemers dus meer positieve gedachten gingen bedenken als reactie op de boodschap, bracht dit ook een meer positieve houding ten opzichte van roken met zich mee. Bedreiging van eigenheid had dus indirect een onbedoeld resultaat.

De voorzichtige conclusie op basis van de bekomen resultaten is dus dat bedreiging in anti-rookboodschappen werkt wanneer het goed gericht is. Wanneer een boodschap erin slaagt om de fysieke gezondheid te bedreigen maakt dit dat rokers minder voorkeur voor roken zullen vertonen. Wanneer de eigenheid of vrijheid van een persoon bedreigd wordt in de boodschap krijg je echter een omgekeerd effect, namelijk dat rokers positiever staan ten opzichte van roken. Echter, toekomstig onderzoek moet hier alle factoren in rekening brengen. Zo bleek dat bedreiging van fysieke gezondheid mogelijks ook de craving, of de mate van hunkering naar een sigaret, deed toenemen. Zodoende kan bedreiging van fysieke gezondheid via andere wegen mogelijks toch nog aanzetten tot meer roken.

Er liggen dus nog heel wat mogelijkheden voor onderzoek op tafel met betrekking tot de effecten van anti-rookboodschappen. De “Roken veroorzaakt longkanker”- boodschappen kunnen gerust op de pakjes blijven prijken. We kunnen op basis van dit onderzoek wel stellen dat we voorzichtig en genuanceerd moeten zijn in de uitspraken die we doen over het effect van deze boodschappen. Deze zijn mogelijks niet altijd zoals bedoeld.

Bibliografie

•    Agentschap Zorg & Gezondheid. (2011, maart). Tabak. Geraadpleegd op 18 november 2014, van http://www.zorg-en-gezondheid.be/Gezond-leven-en-milieu/Tabak,-alcohol-… •    Ajzen, I., & Madden, T.J. (1986). Prediction of Goal-Directed Behavior: Attitudes, Intentions and Perceived Behavioral Control. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 22, 453-474. •    Allender, S., Balakrishnan, R., Scarborough, P., Webster, P., & Rayner, M. (2009). The burden of smoking-related ill health in the UK. Tobacco Control, 18, 262-267. doi:10.1136/tc.2008.026294 •    Ameringer, K. J., & Leventhal, A. M. (2014, September 22). Psychological Symptoms, Smoking Lapse Behavior, and the Mediating Effects of Nicotine Withdrawal Symptoms: A Laboratory Study. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/adb0000029 •    Andersson, M.A., & Conley, C.S. (2008). Expecting to heal through self-expression: a perceived control theory of writing and health. Health Psychology Review, 2 (2), 138-162. doi: 10.1080/17437190802660890 •    Banas, J.A., & Rains, S.A. (2010). A Meta-Analysis of Research on Inoculation Theory. Communication Monographs, 77(3), 281-311. doi: 10.1080/03637751003758193 •    Banse, R., Seise, J., & Zerbes N. (2001). Implicit Attitudes towards Homosexuality: Reliability, Validity, and Controllability of the IAT. Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie, 48 , 145-160. •    Berkman, E.T., Falk, E.B., & Lieberman, M.D. (2011). In the Trenches of Real-World Self-Control: Neural Correlates of Breaking the Link Between Craving and Smoking. Psychological Science, 22 , 498-506. doi: 10.1177/0956797611400918 •    Berkman, E.T., Falk, E.B., Dickenson, J., & Lieberman, M.D. (2011). Using SMS Text Messaging to Assess Moderators of Smoking Reduction: Validating a New Tool for Ecological Measurement of Health Behaviors. Health Psychology, 30 (2), 186-194. DOI: 10.1037/a0022201 •    Berman, M., Crane, R., Seiber, E., & Munur, M. (2013). Estimating the cost of a smoking employee. Tobacco Control, 0, 1-6. doi:10.1136/ tobaccocontrol-2012- 050888 •    Brehm, S.S., & Brehm, J.W. (1981). Psychological Reactance: A Theory of Freedom and Control. New York: Academic Press. •    Cataldo, J.K., Hunter, M., Petersen, A.B., & Sheon N. (2015). Positive and instructive anti-smoking messages speak to older smokers: a focus group study. Tobacco Induced Diseases, 13 , 1-8. DOI 10.1186/s12971-015-0027-x •    Cataldo, J.K., Hunter, M., Petersen, A.B., & Sheon, N. (2015). Positive and instructive anti-smoking messages speak to older smokers: a focus group study. Tobacco Induced Deseases, 13, 1-8. doi: 10.1186/s12971-015-0027-x •    Choi, K., Forster, J., Erickson, D., Lazovich, D., & Southwell, B.G. (2012). The reciprocal relationships between changes in adolescent perceived prevalence of smoking in movies and progression of smoking status. Tobacco Control, 21, 492-496. doi:10.1136/tc.2011.044099 •    Conklin, C.A., Vella, E.J., Joyce, C.J., Salkeld, R.P., Perkins, K.A., & Parzynski, C.S. (2015). Examining the Relationship Between Cue-Induced Craving and Actual Smoking. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 23 (2), 90-96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0038826 •    Cook, J., Spring, B., McChargue, D., & Doran, N. (2010). Effects of anhedonia on days to relapse among smokers with a history of depres- sion: A brief report. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 12, 978–982. doi: 10.1093/ntr/ntq118 •    De Houwer, J. (2001). A Structural and Process Analysis of the Implicit Association Test. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 443-451. doi:10.1006/jesp.2000.1464 •    De Houwer, J. (2006). What are implicit measures and why are we using them. In R.W. Wiers & A.W. Stacy (Eds.), The handbook of implicit cognition and addiction, (pp. 11-28). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishers. •    De Houwer, J. (2014). Why a Propositional Single-Process Model of Associative Learning Deserves to Be Defended. In J.W. Sherman, B. Gawronski, & Y. Trope (Red.), Dual-Process Theories of the Social Mind (pp. 530-541). New York, NY: The Guilford Press. •    De Houwer, J., Custers, R., & De Clercq, A. (2006). Do smokers have a negative implicit attitude toward smoking? Cognition and Emotion, 20 (8), 1274-1284. doi: 10.1080/02699930500484506 •    De Houwer, J., Thomas, S., & Baeyens, F. (2001). Associative Learning of Likes and Dislikes: A Review of 25 Years of Research on Human Evaluative Conditioning. Psychological Bulletin, 127 , 853-869. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.127.6.853 •    De Poot, D. (2014). Positieve waarschuwing op pakje sigaretten loont. Geraadpleegd op 28 april 2015, http://www.knack.be/nieuws/gezondheid/positieve-waarschuwing-op-pakje-s… •    Dijkstra, A. (2009). Disengagement beliefs in smokers: Do they influence the effects of a tailored persuasive message advocating smoking cessation? Psychology & Health, 24 (7), 791-804. doi: 10.1080/08870440801998962 •    Dube, S., Thompson, W., Homa, D., & Zack, M. (2013). Smoking and health-related quality of life among U.S. Adolescents. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 15 , 492-500. doi: 10.1093/ntr/nts163 •    Etter, J.F. (2005). A self-administered questionnaire to measure cigarette withdrawal symptoms: the Cigarette Withdrawal Scale. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 7 (1), 47-57. doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1300030 •    Fabrigar, L.R., & Petty, R.E. (1999). The Role of the Affective and Cognitive Bases of Attitudes in Susceptibility to Affectively and Cognitively Based Persuasion. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25 (3), 363-381. •    Falk, E., Berkman, E., Mann, T., Harrison, B., & Lieberman, D. (2010). Predicting Persuasion-Induced Behavior Change from the Brain. The Journal of Neuroscience, 30 (25), 8421-8424. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0063-10.2010 •    Fazio, R.H. (2007). Attitudes as Object-Evaluation Associations of Varying Strength. Social Cognition, 25 , 603-637. doi:10.1521/soco.2007.25.5.603 •    Fazio, R.H., Sanbonmatsu, D.M., Powell, M.C., & Kardes, F.R. (1986). On the automatic activation of attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50 (2), 229-238. •    Fazio, R.H., Jackson, J.R., Dunton, B.C., & Williams, C.J. (1995). Variability in Automatic Activation as an Unobtrusive Measure of Racial Attitudes: A Bona Fide Pipeline? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69 (6), 1013-1027. •    Fazio, R.H., & Olson, M.A. (2003). Implicit Measures in Social Cognition Research: Their Meaning and Use. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 297-327. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145225 •    Festinger, L. (1957). A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Californië: Stanford University Press. •    Franklin, T.R., wang, Z., Wang, J., Sciortino, N., Harper, D., Li, Y., Ehrman, R., Kampman, K., O’Brien, C., A Detre, J., & Childress, A.R. (2007). Limbic Activation to Cigarette Smoking Cues Independent of Nicotine Withdrawal: A Perfusion fMRI Study. Neuropsychopharmacology, 32, 2301-2309. doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1301371 •    Friese, M., Hofmann, W., & Schmitt, M. (2008). When and why do implicit measures •    predict behaviour? Empirical evidence for the moderating role of opportunity, motivation, and process reliance. European Review of Social Psychology, 19, 285-338. doi: 10.1080/10463280802556958 •    Gallus, S., Ghislandi, S., & Muttarak, R. (2015). Effects of the economic crisis on smoking prevalence and number of smokers in the USA. Tobacco Control, 24, 82-88. doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2012-050856 •    Gallus, S., Lugo, A., La Vecchia, C., Boffetta, P., Chaloupka, F.J., Colombo, P., Currie, L., Fernandez, E., Fischbacher, C., Gilmore, A., Godfrey, F., Joossens, L., Leon, M.E., Levy, D.T., Nguyen, L., Rosenqvist, G., Ross, H., Townsend, J., & Clancy, L. (2014). Pricing Policies And Control of Tobacco in Europe (PPACTE) project: cross-national comparison of smoking prevalence in 18 European countries. European Journal of Cancer Prevention, 23, 177-185. doi: 10.1097/CEJ.0000000000000009 •    Gardner, E. (2010). Ease the résistance: the role of narrative and other-referencing in attenuating psychological reactance to persuasive diabetes messages (doctoraatsschrift).  Faculty of the Graduate School, University of Missouri, Columbia. •    Gass, J.C., Motschman, C.A., & Tiffany, S.T. (2014). The Relationship Between Craving and Tobacco Use Behavior in Laboratory Studies: A Meta-Analysis. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 28 , 1162-1176. doi: 10.1037/a0036879 •    Gawronski, B., & Bodenhausen, G.V. (2006). Associative and Propositional Processes in Evaluation: An Integrative Review of Implicit and Explicit Attitude Change. Psychological Bulletin, 132 , 692-731. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.132.5.692 •    Gawronski, B., & Strack, F. (2004). On the propositional nature of cognitive consistency: Dissonance changes explicit, but not implicit attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 535-542. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2003.10.005 •    Gisle, L. (2014). Het gebruik van tabak. Geraadpleegd op 12 april 2016, van https://his.wiv-isp.be/nl/Gedeelde%20%20documenten/TA_NL_2013.pdf •    Goldenberg, M., Danovitch, I., & Wahuih, W. (2014). Quality of Life and Smoking. The American Journal on Addictions, 23, 540-462. doi: 10.1111/j.1521-0391.2014.12148.x •    Greenwald, A.G., McGhee, D.E., & Schwartz, J.L.K. (1998). Measuring Individual Differences in Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74 (6), 1464-1480. •    Greenwald, A.G., Uhlmann, E.L., Poehlman, T.A., & Banaji, M.R. (2009). Understanding and Using the Implicit Association Test: III. Meta-analysis of Predictive Validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97 (1), 17-41. doi: 10.1037/a0015575 •    Gregg, A.P., Seibt, B., & Banaji, M.R. (2006). Easier done than undone: Asymmetry in the malleability of implicit preferences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 1464-1480. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.90.1.1 •    Han, A.H., Olson, M.A., & Fazio, R.H. (2006). The influence of experimentally created extrapersonal associations on the Implicit Association Test. Journal of Experimental Social Psycholohy, 42, 259-272. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2005.04.006 •    Hasin, D.S., Fenton, M.C., Beseler, C., Park, J.Y., & Wall, M.M. (2012). Analyses related to the development of DSM-5 criteria for substance use related disorders: 2. Proposed DSM-5 criteria for alcohol, cannabis, cocaine and heroin disorders in 663 substance abuse patients. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 122, 28-37. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.09.005. •    Havegheer, S. (2015). Deze boodschap kan uw gezondheid ernstige schade toebrengen. Negatieve effecten van enti-rookboodschappen. Unpublished master’s dissertation, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium. •    Heatherton, T.F., Kozlowski, L.T., Frecker, R.C., & Fagerström, K.O. (1991). The Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence: a revision of the Fagerström Tolerance Questionnaire. British Journal of Addiction, 86, 1119-1127. •    Herzog, T., Pokhrel, P., Kawamoto, & C.T. (2015). Short-Term Fluctuations in Motivation to Quit Smoking in a Sample of Smokers in Hawaii. Substance Use & Misuse, 50, 236-241. doi: 10.3109/10826084.2014.966846 •    Hitchman, S.C., Fong, G.T., Zanna, M.P., Thrasher, J.F., & Laux, F.L. (2014). The Relation Between Number of Smoking Friends, and Quit Intentions, Attempts, and Success: Findings From the International Tobacco Control (ITC) Four Country Survey. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 28, 1144-1152. doi: 10.1037/a0036483. •    Hofmann, W., Gawronski, B., Gschwendner, T., Le, H., & Schmitt, M. (2005). A Meta-Analysis on the Correlation Between the Implicit Association Test and Explicit Self-Report Measures. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31 (10), 1369-1385. doi: 10.1177/0146167205275613 •    Horcajo, J., Briñol, P., & Petty, R.E. (2010). Consumer persuasion: Indirect change and implicit balance. Psychology and Marketing, 27 (10), 938-963. doi: 10.1002/mar.20367 •    Hovland, C. I., Janis, I. L., & Kelly, H. H. (1953). Communication and persuasion: Psychological studies of opinion change. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. •    Janes, A.C., Diego, A.P., Richardt, S., Blaise deB., F., Chuzi, S., Pachas, G., Culhane, M.A., Holmes, A.J., Fava, M., Evins, A.E., & Kaufman, M.J. (2010). Brain Reactivity to Smoking Cues Prior to Smoking Cessation Predicts Ability to Maintain Tobacco Abstinence. Biological Psychiatry, 67, 722-729. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.12.034 •    Janes, A.C., Park, M.T.M., Farmer, S., & Chakravarty, M.M (2015). Striatal Morphology is Associated with Tobacco Cigarette Craving. Neuropsychopharmacology, 40, 406-411. doi:10.1038/npp.2014.185 •    Javitz, H.S., Zbikowski, S.M., & Swan, G.E. (2006). Financial burden of tobacco use: an eployer’s perspective. Clinical Occupational Environmental Medicine, 5, 9-29. •    Jones, A.M., Laporte, A., Rice, N., & Zucchelli, E. (2015). Do public smoking bans have an impact on smoking? Evidence from the UK. Health Economics, 24, 175-192. doi: 10.1002/hec.3009 •    Kahler, C.W., Daughters, S.B., Leventhal, A.M., & Gwaltney, C.J. (2007). Implicit Associations between Smoking and Social Consequences Among Smokers in Cessation Treatment. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45 , 2066-2077. doi:  10.1016/j.brat.2007.03.004 •    Kang, Y., Cappella, J., & Fishbein, M. (2006). The Attentional Mechanism of Message Sensation Value: Interaction between Message Sensation Value and Argument Quality on Message Effectiveness. Communication Monographs, 73 , 351-378. doi: 10.1080/03637750601024164 •    Leventhal, A.M., Japuntich, S.J., Piper, M.E., Jorenby, D.E., Schlam, T.R., & Baker, T.B. (2012). Isolating the Role of Psychological Dysfunction in Smoking Cessation: Relations of Personality and Psychopathology to Attaining Cessation Milestones. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 26 (4), 838-849.  DOI: 10.1037/a0028449 •    Lundborg, P. (2007). Does smoking increase sick leave? Evidence using register data on swedish workers. Tobacco Control, 16, 114-118. doi:10.1136/tc.2006.017798 •    Max, W., Sung, H.Y., & Shi, Y. (2014). The cost of secondhand smoke exposure at home in California. Tobacco Control, 0, 1-6. doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol- 2013-051253 •    Mays, D., Turner, M.M., Zhao, X., Evans, W.D., Luta, G., & Tercyak, K.P. (2014). Framing Pictorial Cigarette Warning Labels to Motivate Young Smokers to Quit. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 0, 1-7. doi:10.1093/ntr/ntu164 •    McCrady, B.S., & Epstein E.E. (2013). Addictions: A Comprehensive Guidebook. Oxford: University Press. •    McGuire, W. (1961). Resistance to persuasion conferred by active and passive prior refutation of the same and alternative counterarguments. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63(2), 326-332. •    McKee, S.A., Sinha, R., Weinberger, A.H., Sofuoglu, M., Harrison E.L.R., Lavery, M., & Wanzer J. (2011). Stress decreases the ability to resist smoking and potentiates smoking intensity and reward. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 25 (4), 490-502. doi: 10.1177/0269881110376694 •    Michalowski, A., & Erblich, J. (2014). Reward dependence moderates smoking-cue- and stress-induced cigarette cravings. Addictive Behaviors, 39, 1879-1883. doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.07.032 •    Minami, H., Bloom, E.L., Reed, K.M. Palm, Hayes, S.C., & Brown, R.A. (2014). The Moderating Role of Experiential Avoidance in the Relationships Between Internal Distress and Smoking Behavior During a Quit Attempt. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors. Online publicatie. doi: 10.1037/adb0000030 •    Mitchell, C.J., De Houwer J., & Lovibond, P.F. (2009). The propositional nature of human associative learning. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 32 (2), 183-198. doi: 10.1017/S0140525X09000855. •    Müssener, U., Bendtsen, M., Karlsson, N., White, I.R., McCambridge, J., & Bendtsen, P. (2015). SMS-based smoking cessation intervention among university students: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial (NEXit trial). Trails, 16: 140. doi: 10.1186/s13063-015-0640-2 •    Nietzsche, F.W. (2011). De vrolijke wetenschap. Amsterdam: Uitgeverij De Arbeidspers. •    Nosek, B.A., Greenwald, A.G., & Banaji, M.R. (2005). Understanding and Using the Implicit Association Test: II. Method Variables and Construct Validity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31 (2), 166-180. doi: 10.1177/0146167204271418 •    Olson, M.A., & Fazio, R.H. (2004). Reducing the Influence of Extrapersonal Associations on the Implicit Association Test: Personalizing the IAT. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86 (5), 653-667. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.86.5.653 •    Payne, B.K., Cheng, C.M., Govorun, O., & Stewart, B.D. (2005). An Inkblot for Attitudes: Affect Misattribution as Implicit Measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89 (3), 277-293. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.89.3.277 •    Pechmann, C., Zhao, G., Goldberg, M.E., & Reibling, E.T. (2003). What to Convey in Antismoking Advertisements for Adolescents: The Use of Protection Motivation Theory to Identify Effective Message Themes. Journal of Marketing, 67 (2), 1-18. doi: 10.1509/jmkg.67.2.1.18607 •    Quick, B.L. (2013). Perceived Message Sensation Value and Psychological Reactance: A Test of the Dominant Thought Disruption Hypothesis. Journal of Health Communication, 18, 1024-1038. doi: 10.1080/10810730.2013.768728 •    Ranganath, K.A., & Nosek, B.A. (2008). Implicit attitude generalization occurs immediately, explicit attitude generalization takes time. Psychological Science, 19, 249-254. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02076.x •    Rooke, S.E., Hine, D.W., & Thorsteinsson, E.B. (2008). Implicit cognition and substance use: A meta-analysis. Addictive Behaviors, 33, 1314-1328. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2008.06.009 •    Rosseel, Y. (2012). lavaan: An R Package for Structural Equation Modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48(2), 1-36. URL: http://www.jstatsoft.org/v48/i02/ •    Rydell, R.J., & McConnell, A.R. (2006). Understanding implicit and explicit attitude change: A systems of reasoning analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 995-1008. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.91.6.995 •    Scharrer, E., & Leone, R. (2008). First-Person Shooters and the Third-Person Effect. Human Communication Research, 34, 210-233. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2008.00319.x •    Schull, J. (1979). A conditioned opponent theory of Pavlovian conditioning and habituation. In G.H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (vol. 13). New York: Academic Press. •    See, Y.H.M., Petty, R.E., & Fabrigar, L.R. (2008). Affective and Cognitive Meta-Bases of Attitudes: Unique Effects on Information Interest and Persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94 (6), 938 – 955. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.94.6.938. •    Sherman, S.J., Rose, J.S., Koch, K., Presson, C.C., & Chassin, L. (2003). Implicit and Explicit Attitudes Toward Cigarette smoking: the Effects of Context and Motivation. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 22 (1), 13-39. doi: 10.1521/jscp.22.1.13.22766 •    Skinner, B.F. (1974). About Behaviorism. New York: Random House. •    Sloman, S.A. (1996). The Empirical Case for Two Systems of Reasoning. Psychological Bulletin, 119 (1), 3-22. •    Smith, C.T., & De Houwer, J. (2015). Hooked on a feeling: affective anti-smoking messages are more effective than cognitive messages at changing implicit evaluations of smoking. Frontiers in Psychology, 6: 1488. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01488 •    Solomon, R.L. (1980). The Opponent-Process Theory of Acquired Motivation. American Psychologist, 35 (8), 691-712. •    Spruyt, A., Lemaigre, V., Salhi, B., Van Gucht, D., Tibboel, H., Van Bockstaele, B., De Houwer, J., Van Meerbeeck, J., & Nackaerts, K. (2015). Implicit attitudes towards smoking predict long-term relapse in abstinent smokers. Psychopharmacology, 232 (14), 2551-2561. doi: 10.1007/s00213-015-3893-2. •    Stichting tegen Kanker (z.d.). Wat zegt de wetgever over roken? Geraadpleegd op 3 mei 2015, van http://www.kanker.be/wat-zegt-de-wetgever-over-roken •    Strecher, V.J., McClure, J.B., Alexander, G.L., Chakraborty, B., Nair, V.N., Konkel, J.M., Greene, S.M., Collins, L.M., Carlier, C.C., Wiese, C.J., Little, R.J., Pomerleau, C.S., & Pomerleau, O.F. (2008). Web-Based Smoking-Cessation Programs. Results of a Randomized Trial. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 34 (5), 373-381. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2007.12.024. •    Sung, Suk C., & Joung, Hwa K. (2014). Risk Factors for Current Smoking Among American and South Korean Adolescents, 2005-2011. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 46 (6), 408-415. doi: 10.1111/jnu.12099 •    Taaltelefoon. (2003). Hoesthoesje. Geraadpleegd op 4 augustus 2015, van http://www.taaltelefoon.be/hoesthoesje •    Tiffany, S.T. (1990). A Cognitive Model of Drug Urges and Drug-Use Behavior: Role of Automatic and Nonautomatic Processes. Psychological Review, 97 (2), 147-168. •    Tiffany, S.T., & Drobes, D.J. (1991). The development and initial validation of a questionnaire on smoking urges. British Journal of Addiction, 86 (11), 1467-1476. •    Trafimow, D., & Sheeran, P. (1998). Some Tests of the Distinction between Cognitive and Affective Beliefs. Journal of experimental social psychology, 34, 378-397. •    Van Dessel, P., Smith, C.T., & De Houwer, J. (unpublished manuscript). No graphics please! The Effect of graphic  anti-smoking messages on implicit evaluations of smoking. Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium. •    Van Oyen, H., Berger, N., Nusselder, W., Charafeddine, R., Jagger, C., Cambois, E., Robine, J.M., & Demarest, S. (2014). The effect of smoking on the duration of life with and without disability, Belgium 1997-2011. Biomedical Central Public Health, 14 (723), 1-12. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-14-723 •    van ’t Riet, J., & Ruiter, R.A.C. (2013). Defensive reactions to health-promoting information: an overview and implications for future research. Health Psychology Research, 7 (1), 104-136. doi: 10.1080/17437199.2011.606782 •    Velten, E. (1968). A laboratory task for induction of mood states. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 6, 473-482. DOI: 0005-7967(68)90028-4 •    Vinci, C., Kinsaul, J., Carrigan, M.H., & Copeland, A.L. (2015). The relationship between smoking motives and smoking urges experienced in response to a negative affect induction. Addictive Behaviors, 40, 96-101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.09.007 •    Wereldgezondheidsorganisatie. (2014, mei). Tobacco Fact Sheet. Geraadpleegd op 18 november 2014, van http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs339/en/ •    Wereldgezondheidsorganisatie. (z.d.). Quitting Fact Sheet. Geraadpleegd op 18 november 2014, van http://www.who.int/tobacco/quitting/en_tfi_quitting_fact_sheet.pdf   •    Witte, K. (1992). Putting the Fear back into fear appeals: the extended parallel process model. Communication Monographs, 59, 329-349. •    Witte, K. (2000). A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeals: Implications for Effective Public Health Campaigns. Health Education & Behavior, 27 (5), 591-615. doi: 10.1177/109019810002700506 •    Xu, J. (2015). Designing messages with high sensation value: When activation meets reactance. Psychology & Health, 30(4), 423-440. doi: 10.1080/08870446.2014.977280 •    Ygram Peters, G.J., Ruiter, R.A.C., & Kok, G. (2013). Threatening communication: a critical re-analysis and a revised meta-analytic test of fear appeal theory, Health Psychology Review, 7, 8-31. doi: 10.1080/17437199.2012.703527 •    Yong, L.C., Luckhaupt, J.L., Calvert, G.M. (2014). Quit interest, quit attempt and recent cigarette smoking cessation in the US working population, 2010. Occupational Environmental Medicine, 71, 405-414. doi:10.1136/oemed-2013-101852 •    Yzer, M., & van den Putte, B. (2014). Control Perceptions Moderate Attitudinal and Normative Effects on Intention to Quit Smoking. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1037/a0037924 •    Zajonc, R.B. (1980). Feeling and Thinking: Preferences Need No Inferences. American Psychologist, 35 (2), 151-175.

Universiteit of Hogeschool
Master in de psychologie - afstudeerrichting klinische psychologie
Publicatiejaar
2016
Promotor(en)
Prof. Dr. Jan De Houwer
Kernwoorden
Share this on: